About the Civil Rights Cases of 1883

In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which had prohibited racial discrimination in hotels, trains, and other public places, was unconstitutional. In an 8-1 decision, the court ruled that the 13th and 14th amendments to the Constitution did not give Congress the power to regulate the affairs of private individuals and businesses. Background During the post-Civil War Reconstruction Period between 1866 and 1877, Congress passed several civil rights laws intended to implement the 13th and 14th amendments. The last and most aggressive of these laws, the Civil Rights Act of 1875, imposed criminal penalties against the owners of private businesses or modes of transportation that restricted access to their facilities because of race. The law read, in part: â€Å"(A)ll persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement; subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law, and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude.† Many people in both the South and the North objected to the Civil Rights Act of 1875, arguing that the law unfairly infringed on personal freedom of choice. Indeed, the legislatures of some Southern states had already enacted laws allowing separate public facilities for whites and African Americans. Details of the Cases In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the Supreme Court took the rare route of deciding five separate but closely related cases with one unified ruling. The five cases (United States v. Stanley, United States v. Ryan, United States v. Nichols, United States v. Singleton, and Robinson v. Memphis Charleston Railroad) reached the Supreme Court on appeal from the lower federal courts and involved suits filed by African American citizens claiming they had been illegally been refused equal access to restaurants, hotels, theaters, and trains as required by the Civil Rights Act of 1875. During this time, many businesses had attempted to skirt the letter of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 by allowing African Americans to use their facilities, but forcing them to occupy separate â€Å"Colored Only† areas. Constitutional Questions The Supreme Court was asked to decide the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in light of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Specifically, the court considered: Did the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment apply to the day-to-day operations of privately-owned businesses?What specific protections did the 13th and 14th amendments provide for private citizens?Did the 14th Amendment, which prohibits state governments from practicing racial discrimination, also ban private individuals from discriminating under their right to â€Å"freedom of choice?† In other words, was â€Å"private racial segregation,† like designating â€Å"Coloreds Only† and â€Å"Whites Only† areas legal? The Arguments Over the course of the case, the Supreme Court heard arguments for and against allowing private racial segregation and, thus, the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875.   Ban Private Racial Segregation: Because the 13th and 14th amendments had intended to â€Å"remove the last vestiges of slavery† from America, the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was constitutional. By sanctioning practices of private racial discrimination, the Supreme Court would â€Å"permit the badges and incidents of slavery† to remain a part of Americans’ lives. The Constitution grants the federal government the power to prevent state governments from taking actions that deprive any U.S. citizen of their civil rights. Allow Private Racial Segregation: The 14th Amendment banned only the state governments from practicing racial discrimination, not private citizens. The 14th Amendment specifically declares, in part, â€Å"†¦ nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.† Enacted and enforced by the federal, rather than the state governments. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutionally infringed on the rights of private citizens to use and operate their property and businesses as they saw fit.   Decision and Reasoning In an 8-1 opinion written by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, the Supreme Court found the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional. Justice Bradley declared that neither the 13th nor the 14th Amendment granted Congress the power to enact laws dealing with racial discrimination by private citizens or businesses. Of the 13th Amendment, Bradley wrote, â€Å"The 13th Amendment has respect, not to distinctions of race †¦ but to slavery.† Bradley added, â€Å"The 13th Amendment relates to slavery and involuntary servitude (which it abolishes); ... yet such legislative power extends only to the subject of slavery and its incidents; and the denial of equal accommodations in inns, public conveyances and places of public amusement (which is forbidden by the sections in question), imposes no badge of slavery or involuntary servitude upon the party, but at most, infringes rights which are protected from State aggression by the 14th Amendment.† Justice Bradley went on to agree with the argument that the 14th Amendment applied only to the states, not to private citizens or businesses. He wrote: â€Å"The 14th Amendment is prohibitory upon the States only, and the legislation authorized to be adopted by Congress for enforcing it is not direct legislation on the matters respecting which the States are prohibited from making or enforcing certain laws, or doing certain acts, but it is corrective legislation, such as may be necessary or proper for counteracting and redressing the effect of such laws or acts.† The Lone Dissent Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote the only dissenting opinion in the Civil Rights Cases. Harlan’s belief that the majority’s â€Å"narrow and artificial† interpretation 13th and 14th Amendments led him to write, â€Å"I cannot resist the conclusion that the substance and spirit of the recent amendments of the Constitution have been sacrificed by a subtle and ingenious verbal criticism.† Harlan wrote that the 13th Amendment did far more than â€Å"to prohibit slavery as an institution,† it also â€Å"established and decreed universal civil freedom throughout the United States.† In addition, noted Harlan, Section II of the 13th Amendment decreed that â€Å"Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation,† and had thus been the basis for the  enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which granted full citizenship to all persons born in the United States. Harlan contended that the 13th and 14th amendments, as well as the Civil Rights Act of 1875, were constitutional acts of Congress intended to ensure African Americans the same rights to access and use of public facilities that white citizens took for granted as their natural right. In summary, Harlan stated that the federal government had both the authority and the responsibility to protect citizens from any actions that deprive them of their rights and to allow private racial discrimination would â€Å"permit the badges and incidents of slavery† to remain. Impact The Supreme Court’s decision in the Civil Rights Cases virtually stripped the federal government of any power to ensure African Americans equal protection under the law. As Justice Harlan had predicted in his dissent, freed of the threat of federal restrictions, Southern states began enacting laws sanctioning racial segregation. In 1896, the Supreme Court cited its Civil Rights Cases ruling in its landmark Plessy v. Ferguson decision declaring that requiring separate facilities for blacks and whites was constitutional as long as those facilities were â€Å"equal† and that racial segregation itself did not amount to unlawful discrimination. So-called â€Å"separate but equal† segregated facilities, including schools, would persist for more than 80 years until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s swayed public opinion to oppose racial discrimination. Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, enacted as part of the Great Society program of President Lyndon B. Johnson, incorporated several key elements of the Civil Rights Act of 1875.

Digestive System Explained Organs and Digestion

The digestive system is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. Inside this tube is a thin, soft membrane  lining  of epithelial tissue called the mucosa.  In the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that produce juices to help digest food. There are also two solid digestive organs, the liver and the pancreas, which produce juices that reach the intestine through small tubes. In addition, parts of other organ systems (nerves and blood) play a major role in the digestive system. Why Is Digestion Important? When we eat such things as bread, meat, and vegetables, they are not in a form that the body can use as nourishment. Our food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the body. Digestion is the process by which food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so that the body can use them to build and nourish cells and to provide energy. How Is Food Digested? Digestion involves the mixing of food, its movement through the digestive tract, and chemical breakdown of the large molecules of food into smaller molecules. Digestion begins in the mouth, when we chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine. The chemical process varies somewhat for different kinds of food. The large, hollow organs of the digestive system contain muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement of organ walls can propel food and liquid and also can mix the contents within each organ. Typical movement of the esophagus, stomach, and intestine is called peristalsis. The action of peristalsis looks like an ocean wave moving through the muscle. The muscle of the organ produces a narrowing and then propels the narrowed portion slowly down the length of the organ. These waves of narrowing push the food and fluid in front of them through each hollow organ. The first major muscle movement occurs when food or liquid is swallowed. Although we are able to start swallowing by choice, once the swallow begins, it becomes involuntary and proceeds under the control of the nerves. Esophagus The esophagus is the organ into which the swallowed food is pushed. It connects the throat above with the stomach below. At the junction of the esophagus and stomach, there is a ringlike valve closing the passage between the two organs. However, as the food approaches the closed ring, the surrounding muscles relax and allow the food to pass. Stomach The food then enters the stomach, which has three mechanical tasks to do. First, the stomach must store the swallowed food and liquid. This requires the muscle of the upper part of the stomach to relax and accept large volumes of swallowed material. The second job is to mix up the food, liquid, and digestive juice produced by the stomach. The lower part of the stomach mixes these materials by its muscle action. The third task of the stomach is to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine. Intestines Several factors affect emptying of the stomach, including the nature of the food (mainly its fat and protein content) and the degree of muscle action of the emptying stomach and the next organ to receive the stomach contents (the small intestine). As the food is digested in the small intestine and dissolved into the juices from the pancreas, liver, and intestine, the contents of the intestine are mixed and pushed forward to allow further digestion. Finally, all of the digested nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal walls. The waste products of this process include undigested parts of the food, known as fiber, and older cells that have been shed from the mucosa. These materials are propelled into the colon, where they remain, usually for a day or two, until the feces are expelled by a bowel movement. Gut Microbes and Digestion The human gut microbiome also aids in digestion. Trillions of bacteria thrive in the harsh conditions of the gut and are heavily involved in maintaining healthy nutrition, normal metabolism, and proper immune function. These commensal bacteria aid in the digestion of non-digestible carbohydrates, help to metabolize bile acid and drugs, and synthesize amino acids and many vitamins. In addition to assisting in digestion, these microbes also protect against pathogenic bacteria by secreting antimicrobial substances that prevent harmful bacteria from proliferating in the gut. Each person has a unique composition of gut microbes and changes in microbe composition have been linked to the development of gastrointestinal disease. Digestive System Glands and Production of Digestive Juices The glands of the digestive system that act first are in the mouth—the salivary glands. Saliva produced by these glands contains an enzyme that begins to digest the starch from food into smaller molecules.The next set of digestive glands is in the stomach lining. They produce stomach acid and an enzyme that digests protein. One of the unsolved puzzles of the digestive system is why the acid juice of the stomach does not dissolve the tissue of the stomach itself. In most people, the stomach mucosa is able to resist the juice, although food and other tissues of the body cannot. After the stomach empties the food and its juice into the small intestine, the juices of two other digestive organs mix with the food to continue the process of digestion. One of these organs is the pancreas. It produces a juice that contains a wide array of enzymes to break down the carbohydrates, fat, and protein in our food. Other enzymes that are active in the process come from glands in the wall of the intestine or even a part of that wall. The liver produces yet another digestive juice—bile. The bile is stored between meals in the gallbladder. At mealtime, it is squeezed out of the gallbladder into the bile ducts to reach the intestine and mix with the fat in our food. The bile acids dissolve the fat into the watery contents of the intestine, much like detergents that dissolve grease from a frying pan. After the fat is dissolved, it is digested by enzymes from the pancreas and the lining of the intestine. Source: The National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse

The American Journey A History Of The United States

From the end of fifteenth century to the mid-seventeenth century, Spain, France,England and Dutch all focused on competing for colonies and trade around the world. Beginning in the late fifteenth century, a lot of explorers, conquerors, missionaries, merchants, and adventurers tried to seek new lands to colonize. Hoping to improve economic conditions in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, many Europeans sought new opportunities for trade and settlement overseas. Spain, Portugal, France, and England all want to grasp the political, economic, and religious domination in Europe, and their conflict also carried to the Americas (Goldfield, ed., The American Journey: A History of the United States, P4). Competition for land areas, settlement, trade, and exploration led to the growth of imperialism and the economic system of mercantilism. Spain was the first nation that colonized the Americas. Spain tried to find a way to trade with Asia in order to grow rich.Due to this important motivation, in 1492, Spanish authorities supported Christopher Columbus who wanted to find a new way to go to Asia by crossing the Atlantic Ocean to start his first voyage. Unfortunately, Christopher Columbus did not go to Asia, but he came to a new land now is called America. After 33 day`s voyage, Christopher Columbus and his sailors reached the Bahamas (Goldfield, P18). Moreover, they used about four months to explore Caribbean and visit some islands (Goldfield, P18). When the earlyShow MoreRelatedThe American Journey : A History Of The United State861 Words   |  4 Pages In 1860s, due to the fact that southern states desired to maintain the slavery while the North wanted to ban the slavery, then the Union which was leaded by Abraham Lincoln fought with the Confederacy which was conducted by Jefferson Davis, and the Union hoped to achieve a goal that preserved the unity. 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The Rise and Fall of Existentialism - 1287 Words

The Rise and Fall of Existentialism Existential literature often focuses on the personal journey towards existential awareness. Common themes in existential works, such as alienation and confrontation with death, often lead the anti-hero towards a climactic choice that defines whether they have reached true understanding. The themes within existential literature are reflected from the world at large, and the works themselves are a metaphor for a grander shift in Western philosophy. Intellectualism in post-war Europe had a sort of existential realization of its own, paralleling the experiences of its literary figures. The philosophy of existentialism had its roots in late nineteenth century philosophers such as†¦show more content†¦The existential attitude itself is not so much chosen as arrived at, writes Porfirio, ...the threat of imminent death... forces the individual to re-examine his life (88) The threat of mortality is particularly pungent in existentialism, because the philosophy strips away all dressings of an afterlife or the hope that any morality transcends existence. The night before Pablo is to be placed before The Wall, he re-evaluates all of the relationships, loyalties, and faiths that he had held during life and finds them all to be false when compared to the absoluteness of death (Sartre). When he finally accepts his lifes meaninglessness, he is rewarded with rebirth. War seems to have been a particularly strong influence of existential sentiment. 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The-Impact-of-Mergers--Acquisitions-on-It-Governance-Structures Free Essays

958 The Impact of Mergers Acquisitions on IT Governance Structures: A Case Study Pauline O. Chin Florida Atlantic University, USA George A. Brown Technologies Consultant, Jamaica Qing Hu Florida Atlantic University, USA Chapter 2. We will write a custom essay sample on The-Impact-of-Mergers--Acquisitions-on-It-Governance-Structures or any similar topic only for you Order Now 32 ABSTRACT Developing information technology (IT) governance structures within an organization has always been challenging. This is particularly the case in organizations that have achieved growth through mergers and acquisitions. When the acquired organizations are geographically located in different regions than the host enterprise, the factors affecting this integration and the choice of IT governance structures are quite different than when this situation does not exist. This study performs an exploratory examination of the factors that affect the choice of IT governance structures in organizations that grow through mergers and acquisitions in developing countries using the results of a case study of an international telecommunications company. We find that in addition to the commonly recognized factors such as government regulation, competition and market stability, organizational culture, and IT competence, top management’s predisposition toward a specific business strategy and governance structure can profoundly influence the choice of IT governance in organizations. Managerial implications are discussed. Copyright  © 2008, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. The Impact of Mergers Acquisitions on IT Governance Structures InTRoduCTIon The business environment has become increasingly complex and competitive due to the rapid advances in technology and globalization of the world economy over the last two decades. In order to survive and to compete on a global scale, organizations have sought to increase their market share through mergers and acquisitions (MA) both locally and internationally. In a publication by the Bureau of Census (2002) on mergers and acquisitions in over 41 industries for the year 1998, it was reported that there were 3,882 cases of U. S. companies acquiring other U. S. companies. These data also indicated that there were 483 cases of foreign companies’ acquisitions of U. S. companies at an estimated value of US $233 billion, and 746 cases of U. S. companies acquiring foreign companies at an estimated value of US $128 billion. The trend toward mergers and acquisitions has been clearly demonstrated within the telecommunications industry worldwide (Oh, 1996; Ramamurti, 2000; Trillas, 2002; Wilcox et al. , 2001). Over the last several years, telecommunications companies in North America, Europe, and Asia have looked toward acquisitions and mergers for their survival and growth. During the last decade there has been an increasing number of local and foreign investments in the industry (Oh, 1996; Ramamurti, 2000), due primarily to the deregulation of the telecommunications markets as well as the move toward total or partial privatization of telecommunications companies within developing regions (Gutierrez Berg, 2000; Melody, 1999). Foreign investments in developing countries within Latin America and the Caribbean have increased tremendously over the last 20 years due largely to changes in the regulatory policies within these regions. Historically, companies in Latin America and the Caribbean were owned primarily by the local states. This changed dramatically in the mid-1980s to 1990s as the increasing economic and financial demands on the industry forced companies in the region to look toward foreign investments in order to stay competitive. Gutierrez and Berg (2000) reported that between the mid-1980s to mid-1990s, 14 out of the 24 telecommunications firms in the region privatized their companies. This strategy is also credited with setting into motion the current trend in a majority of the region’s telecommunications companies toward increased partial or total privatization (Gutierrez Berg, 2000; Ramamurti, 2000). As a consequence of this massive privatization and merger-and-acquisition movement in the telecommunications industry, the role f IT in these organizations has changed significantly over the last decade. The traditional relationship of IT providing support services to individual departments within an organization has evolved into one where IT now plays a broader role in achieving the overall strategic goals of the organization via a focus on global enterprise-wide support that encompasses not only multiple departments, but often different countries and cultures as well. As a result, IT governance in the dynamic and complex business environment has been pushed to the forefront of critical issues facing the management of these organizations, in spite of the fact that little research exists on IT governance that attempts to identify and explain the multiple factors that may affect the choice of IT governance structures in the context of mergers and acquisitions in developing regions. In order to address these issues, this article examines the evolution of a governance structure within a global telecommunications network organization, based on a framework developed from the extant literature on corporate and IT governance theories and practices. The article addresses the general research question: In the process of integrating foreign subsidiaries into the host company, what are the factors that influence the choice of IT governance structure? The primary purpose of the article is to contribute to a broader understanding 959 2 more pages are available in the full version of this document, which may be purchased using the â€Å"Add to Cart† button on the publisher’s webpage: www. igi-global. com/chapter/impact-mergers-acquisitions-governancestructures/9761 Related Content Information and Communication Technology and Good Governance in Africa G. Onu (2007). Encyclopedia of Digital Government (pp. 1026-1034). www. irma-international. org/chapter/informa tion-communication-technology-goodgovernance/11628/ Internet Voting: Embracing Technology in Electoral Processes Andru Riera, Jordi Sanchez and Laia Torras (2002). Electronic Government: Design, Applications and Management (pp. 78-98). www. irma-international. org/chapter/internet-voting-embracing-technology-electoral/9997/ Identifying Barriers to e-Government Services for Citizens in Developing Countries: An Exploratory Study Subhajyoti Ray (2011). International Journal of Electronic Government Research (pp. 79-91). www. irma-international. org/article/identifying-barriers-government-services-citizens/56100/ The State of Mobile Government in Turkey: Overview, Policy Issues, and Future Prospects Mete Yildiz (2008). Electronic Government: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (pp. 236-248). www. irma-international. org/chapter/state-mobile-government-turkey/9708/ The â€Å"Quicksilver Initiatives† as a Framework for e-Government Strategy Design in Developing Economies Kelvin Joseph Bwalya, Tanya Du Plessis and Chris Rensleigh (2012). Handbook of Research on EGovernment in Emerging Economies: Adoption, E-Participation, and Legal Frameworks (pp. 605-623). www. irma-international. org/chapter/quicksilver-initiatives-framework-government-strategy/64874/ How to cite The-Impact-of-Mergers--Acquisitions-on-It-Governance-Structures, Papers

The-Impact-of-Mergers--Acquisitions-on-It-Governance-Structures Free Essays

958 The Impact of Mergers Acquisitions on IT Governance Structures: A Case Study Pauline O. Chin Florida Atlantic University, USA George A. Brown Technologies Consultant, Jamaica Qing Hu Florida Atlantic University, USA Chapter 2. We will write a custom essay sample on The-Impact-of-Mergers--Acquisitions-on-It-Governance-Structures or any similar topic only for you Order Now 32 ABSTRACT Developing information technology (IT) governance structures within an organization has always been challenging. This is particularly the case in organizations that have achieved growth through mergers and acquisitions. When the acquired organizations are geographically located in different regions than the host enterprise, the factors affecting this integration and the choice of IT governance structures are quite different than when this situation does not exist. This study performs an exploratory examination of the factors that affect the choice of IT governance structures in organizations that grow through mergers and acquisitions in developing countries using the results of a case study of an international telecommunications company. We find that in addition to the commonly recognized factors such as government regulation, competition and market stability, organizational culture, and IT competence, top management’s predisposition toward a specific business strategy and governance structure can profoundly influence the choice of IT governance in organizations. Managerial implications are discussed. Copyright  © 2008, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. The Impact of Mergers Acquisitions on IT Governance Structures InTRoduCTIon The business environment has become increasingly complex and competitive due to the rapid advances in technology and globalization of the world economy over the last two decades. In order to survive and to compete on a global scale, organizations have sought to increase their market share through mergers and acquisitions (MA) both locally and internationally. In a publication by the Bureau of Census (2002) on mergers and acquisitions in over 41 industries for the year 1998, it was reported that there were 3,882 cases of U. S. companies acquiring other U. S. companies. These data also indicated that there were 483 cases of foreign companies’ acquisitions of U. S. companies at an estimated value of US $233 billion, and 746 cases of U. S. companies acquiring foreign companies at an estimated value of US $128 billion. The trend toward mergers and acquisitions has been clearly demonstrated within the telecommunications industry worldwide (Oh, 1996; Ramamurti, 2000; Trillas, 2002; Wilcox et al. , 2001). Over the last several years, telecommunications companies in North America, Europe, and Asia have looked toward acquisitions and mergers for their survival and growth. During the last decade there has been an increasing number of local and foreign investments in the industry (Oh, 1996; Ramamurti, 2000), due primarily to the deregulation of the telecommunications markets as well as the move toward total or partial privatization of telecommunications companies within developing regions (Gutierrez Berg, 2000; Melody, 1999). Foreign investments in developing countries within Latin America and the Caribbean have increased tremendously over the last 20 years due largely to changes in the regulatory policies within these regions. Historically, companies in Latin America and the Caribbean were owned primarily by the local states. This changed dramatically in the mid-1980s to 1990s as the increasing economic and financial demands on the industry forced companies in the region to look toward foreign investments in order to stay competitive. Gutierrez and Berg (2000) reported that between the mid-1980s to mid-1990s, 14 out of the 24 telecommunications firms in the region privatized their companies. This strategy is also credited with setting into motion the current trend in a majority of the region’s telecommunications companies toward increased partial or total privatization (Gutierrez Berg, 2000; Ramamurti, 2000). As a consequence of this massive privatization and merger-and-acquisition movement in the telecommunications industry, the role f IT in these organizations has changed significantly over the last decade. The traditional relationship of IT providing support services to individual departments within an organization has evolved into one where IT now plays a broader role in achieving the overall strategic goals of the organization via a focus on global enterprise-wide support that encompasses not only multiple departments, but often different countries and cultures as well. As a result, IT governance in the dynamic and complex business environment has been pushed to the forefront of critical issues facing the management of these organizations, in spite of the fact that little research exists on IT governance that attempts to identify and explain the multiple factors that may affect the choice of IT governance structures in the context of mergers and acquisitions in developing regions. In order to address these issues, this article examines the evolution of a governance structure within a global telecommunications network organization, based on a framework developed from the extant literature on corporate and IT governance theories and practices. The article addresses the general research question: In the process of integrating foreign subsidiaries into the host company, what are the factors that influence the choice of IT governance structure? The primary purpose of the article is to contribute to a broader understanding 959 2 more pages are available in the full version of this document, which may be purchased using the â€Å"Add to Cart† button on the publisher’s webpage: www. igi-global. com/chapter/impact-mergers-acquisitions-governancestructures/9761 Related Content Information and Communication Technology and Good Governance in Africa G. Onu (2007). Encyclopedia of Digital Government (pp. 1026-1034). www. irma-international. org/chapter/informa tion-communication-technology-goodgovernance/11628/ Internet Voting: Embracing Technology in Electoral Processes Andru Riera, Jordi Sanchez and Laia Torras (2002). Electronic Government: Design, Applications and Management (pp. 78-98). www. irma-international. org/chapter/internet-voting-embracing-technology-electoral/9997/ Identifying Barriers to e-Government Services for Citizens in Developing Countries: An Exploratory Study Subhajyoti Ray (2011). International Journal of Electronic Government Research (pp. 79-91). www. irma-international. org/article/identifying-barriers-government-services-citizens/56100/ The State of Mobile Government in Turkey: Overview, Policy Issues, and Future Prospects Mete Yildiz (2008). Electronic Government: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (pp. 236-248). www. irma-international. org/chapter/state-mobile-government-turkey/9708/ The â€Å"Quicksilver Initiatives† as a Framework for e-Government Strategy Design in Developing Economies Kelvin Joseph Bwalya, Tanya Du Plessis and Chris Rensleigh (2012). Handbook of Research on EGovernment in Emerging Economies: Adoption, E-Participation, and Legal Frameworks (pp. 605-623). www. irma-international. org/chapter/quicksilver-initiatives-framework-government-strategy/64874/ How to cite The-Impact-of-Mergers--Acquisitions-on-It-Governance-Structures, Papers

International Outsourcing and Unemployment †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the International Outsourcing and Unemployment. Answer: Introduction The identified study focuses on the current economic debate on whether Australian government should abolish the existing minimum wage as a part of economic reforms. Precisely, a number of economists and policymakers have advocated the burden of the system of discriminatory minimum wage pointing out the negative aspects of the system. The existing minimum wage arrangement in Australian economy states that an employer must hire an employee at a minimum of $16.87 per hour in 2016 (ABC News, 2016). Evidently, the restriction in employment under the minimum wage system arrangement has incurred the fiscal burden of the government. In the current economic scenario, many of the economists have voted for abolishing the minimum wage system. One of the leading points of the discussion is whether the minimum wage system is a job killer or job creator in the Australian economy. Since the inception of the minimum wage system in 1907, the system has been criticised for a number of times as it is believed that the system creates restrictions in employment. At the same time, the study identifies how the high rate of minimum wage can increase the rate of unemployment in Australia. Based on the studies and economic model of supply and demand, at the end of the study, the verdict has been made whether the government should abolish the system of the minimum wage. While the debate on abolishing minimum wage system continues, it is important to identify how the system affects the rate of unemployment in an economy. Evidently, based on the economic concepts and theoretical models, it is extremely difficult to accurately track the impact of minimum wage rate on employment status (Novak, 2014). In an economic research paper, David Metcalf stated that it is almost impossible to record the change in employment status based on the minimum wage policy of government as employment scenario reacts gradually in accordance with the change in the minimum wage rate (ABC News, 2016). In the long-term view, there are a number of other factors than minimum wage rate affecting the employment condition of an economy. From the research study of the author, it can be found that due minimum wage system, the employers want to reduce working hours for the low-skilled employees (Meer and West, 2013). However, the overall rate of unemployment will remain unchanged. In the context of the system of the minimum wage rate, the current unemployment condition in Australia has been elaborated to signify whether the increase in minimum wage rate has affected the unemployment. In the current state of scenario, the adjusted unemployment rate in Australia is recorded at 5.6 percent in July, 2017 (Abs.gov.au, 2017). The rate of unemployment is revised from 5.7 percent in the previous month to 5.6 percent as the economy has added 27,900 jobs. Clearly, the unemployment rate pattern in Australia remained over the mark of 5 percent since 2012. However, in a recent labour market reform, the Fair Work Commission increases the minimum wage rate by 3.3% from $17.70 to $18.29 per hour for low-paid workers (Hannan, 2017). In the meanwhile, employers in Australia have slammed the decision of the Fair Work Commission stating that the verdict will slow down economic growth (Hannan, 2017). Precisely, the outcome of the decision may contribute towards an increase in unemployment as well. Due to high rate of minimum wage, Australian employers will surely adopt the technique of outsourcing instead of hiring employees (Karp, 2017). Thus, the risk of unemployment will be influenced by the decision of high wage rate. Demand and Supply Factor in Labour Market By applying the theory of demand and supply in the Australian Labour market, it is important to note that the equilibrium wage rate depends upon the quantity demanded and quantity supplied of labour in the employment market. Currently, the increase in the supply of unskilled labours and fall in the demand is leading to a decrease in the equilibrium wage rate in the market (Basu and Felkey, 2008). However, the government of Australia is keeping on increasing the minimum wage rate by using its price flooring policy. Hence, an excess in the supply and fall in the demand can be evident in the Australian Market that has become a major political concern for the current government. A diagram has been presented herein below for better understanding: It can be seen from the above diagram that the current demand and supply in the Australian Labour market presents the equilibrium wage rate at We and equilibrium quantity at Qe. On the other hand, the governments price flooring policy increases the minimum wage rate to Wm that results in a fall in quantity demanded to Qd and increase in quantity supplied to Qs (Danziger, 2014). Hence, an increase in the unemployment rate can be evident in the Australian market occurring due to structural and cyclical unemployment. The International Monetary Fund presented a report on 2014 saying that the hike in the minimum wage rate impacts the employment of the younger population that makes up the large proportion of low pay and low skilled workers in the economy (ABC News, 2016). For instance, it can be seen from the ABS report that the youth unemployment rate in Australia has increased with the increase in the minimum wage rate in the last 5 years. A figure has been presented herein below for fur ther understanding: Recommendation Furthermore, a conflict can be seen between the Abott Government and the opposition regarding the minimum wage rate in the Australia Labour market (Novak, 2015). On the basis of the above analysis, it can be seen that the minimum wage rate impacts the employment level of the younger generation people and unskilled workers leading to cyclical and structural unemployment. However, it is important for the government to regulate the labour market in order to safeguard the rights of the low skilled people and younger generation who have lesser experiences (ABC News, 2016). Hence, the abolishment of the price flooring policy in the labour market will not be a good idea. In place of abolishing the minimum wage rate, the government can implement a lower minimum wage rate for the younger generation people and labour class people with lower skills to eliminate the issue of fall in demand and excessive supply in the market. Conclusion By considering the above analysis, it can be seen that the price flooring policy implemented by the Australian government in the labour market helps to safeguard the rights of equal compensation for the people. However, the increase in the minimum wage rate has emerged to be a major problem for the younger population that makes up a high proportion of low pay and low skilled workers. A drastic fall in the demand and oversupply of workers can be evident in the Australian market resulting from structural and cyclical unemployment. Hence, it is important for the Australian Government to introduce a lower minimum wage rate that is equivalent to the equilibrium wage rate in place of abolishing the minimum wage rate policy to promote employment and growth in the economy. References ABC News. (2016).Does the minimum wage increase unemployment?. [online] Available at: https://www.abc.net.au/news/factcheck/2015-03-12/minimum-wage/6290482 [Accessed Aug. 2017]. Abs.gov.au. (2017).Unemployment Rate Australia. [online] Available at: https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/6202.0?opendocumentref=HPKI [Accessed Aug. 2017]. Basu, K. and Felkey, A. (2008). A theory of efficiency wage with multiple unemployment equilibria: how a higher minimum wage law can curb unemployment.Oxford Economic Papers, 61(3), pp.494-516. Danziger, L. (2014).The elasticity of labor demand and the minimum wage. 4th ed. Bonn, Germany: IZA. Hannan, E. (2017).Minimum wage rise devastating. [online] Theaustralian.com.au. Available at: https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/industrial-relations/minimum-wage-to-be-lifted-by-33-per-cent-to-1829-an-hour/news-story/ea540d229e58b82a4b41b07cb60957dd [Accessed Aug. 2017]. Karp, P. (2017).Minimum wage to rise by $22 a week after Fair Work Commission ruling. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/jun/06/minimum-wage-to-rise-by-22-a-week-after-fair-work-commission-ruling [Accessed Aug. 2017]. Meer, J. and West, J. (2013).Effects of the minimum wage on employment dynamics. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research. Novak, J. (2014).Minimum wage is anti-jobs and should be abolished. [online] Canberra Times. Available at: https://www.canberratimes.com.au/comment/minimum-wage-is-antijobs-and-should-be-abolished-20140512-zra8p.html [Accessed Aug. 2017]. Novak, M. (2015).Time for discriminatory minimum wage to be abolished. [online] The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: https://www.smh.com.au/comment/time-for-discriminatory-minimum-wage-to-be-abolished-20150206-137pde.html [Accessed Aug. 2017]. Zhang, T. (2011). International Outsourcing and Unemployment in a Minimum-wage Economy.Review of International Economics, 19(4), pp.776-786.